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The chaperonin GroEL/ES, from the bacterium Escherichia coli, is sufficient to mediate the formation of active Rubisco from some cyanobacteria in vivo, but cannot enable the formation of active enzyme in high yield from fully unfolded subunits of either cyanobacteria or plants in vitro. The advantage of such an in vitro screen is that the effects of mutations on enzyme activity can be studied under standardized conditions; by contrast, it is difficult to control the expression of the genes for the Rubisco subunits and the two chaperones in vivo in E. coli.