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At the close of the nineteenth century, the federal state barely existed and national citizenship was, in historian Nancy Cott’s words, “inchoate.”¹ During these same years, homosexuality made its first appearance in American sexological writing, referring not to persons who engaged in sexual activity with persons of the same sex but to those whose “general mental state” was that of “the opposite sex.”² During the better part of the next century, the federal state would grow exponentially, taking on the size and function of its modern form. So too would the meaning of national citizenship be clarified by Congress, the