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In the European context, Italy became a country of immigration relatively late. The first positive balance between emigration and immigration (return immigration included) dates to 1973. Inflows started after the oil crisis of 1973, when the United Kingdom, Germany² and, in particular, neighbouring France closed their borders to immigrants. Flows were partially diverted towards Southern Europe not only because more attractive receiving countries had introduced zero immigration policies, but also because during the late 1970s and early 1980s, regions of low productivity in Southern European countries started to face a labour shortage (King, Fielding & Black 1997: 13; Morén-Alegret &